Eastern European Immigration clues for ancestry research tutorial.
One of the essential considerations in finding our ancestors is immigration research. Immigration/migration patterns reveal clues to finding the country of origin of immigrant ancestors and so much more.
Eastern European Immigration to America for Ancestor Research
Table of Contents
- Think like A Historian Not As Genealogist for Immigration
- Other Resources to Help Trace Immigrant Ancestors
- America: People on the Move
- Czechs and Slovaks Immigration
- Eastern European Immigration
- Hungarian Immigration
- Polish Immigration
- Russian Immigration
Return to Eastern European Immigration to America Table of Contents
Think like A Historian Not As Genealogist for Immigration
Look at immigration from a historian’s point of view and not from the genealogical point of view. You’re trying to understand what your ancestors did and why. As a genealogist, you wonder why your ancestors migrated, and you look for clues that might direct you to the birthplace in your country of origin. As genealogists, we first search through deeds, wills, bible records, and other documents. Documents can tell you that your ancestor sold his property from one person to another, but it does not tell why he then picked up and moved from Virginia to Tennessee. When you add seek to understand immigration patterns of the time and people, your chances for success expand dramatically because you understand what your family was thinking, see what others individuals were doing, where they were going, and where they came from.
By learning about the immigration patterns for a specific ethnic group to which your ancestor belonged in the period they lived, we begin to see trends that correlate to our family, such as the ports they arrived, the counties and cities from which they came, and where they settled, the reasons for decisions that were made, the types of records they left behind and where.
You start by answering the question:
- What was their ethnic background or group to which you think they belonged?
- Where were they Puritans, Welch, or Germans?
- Now you begin to answer the questions:
- Why did they come?
- When did they come?
- Where did they settle?
- What were their social and work conditions?
- What was their religious background?
Return to Eastern European Immigration to America Table of Contents
Other Resources to Help Trace Immigrant Ancestors
Are you developing a family history for an individual or family? Are you trying to find their immigrant origins? Start by seeing the articles
- 5 Steps to Finding Immigrant Ancestor Country of Origin
- Overcome Research Brick Walls to Find Ancestor’s Country of Origin
The following videos can help you get a head start in understanding immigration and country of origin ancestor research.
How to Find the Origin of Immigrants Coming to America
An introduction to immigration and migration historical research. You will be introduced to a five-step methodology to find the immigrant origins when conducting individual and family history research.
Addition videos include:
- What Records to Search to Discover Immigrant Origins-Part 1
- What Records to Search to Discover Immigrant Origins-Part 2
- How to Find Immigrants Real Surname and Life Event Dates
The following are records I have found extremely helpful and full of clues to finding an individual’s birthplace and immigrant origins. It is designed to provide a quick reference and direction of finding and searching for records as probable places to find information. You can use these records to develop an immigrant paper trail to assist you in finding and tracing an individual immigrant’s origins. Check out these articles:
Check out the following country profiles to learn more about their immigration and migration in America.
| Immigration and Migration in America | ||
| Czechs and Slovaks | Danish | Dutch |
| English | Finnish | French |
| German | Greek | Hungarian |
| Icelandic | Irish | Italian |
| Norwegian | Polish | Russian |
| Scandinavian | Scottish | Swedish |
| Welch | United States Western Migration | |
Articles include:
- British Immigration to America for Ancestry Research
- Scandinavian Immigration to America for Ancestry Research
- Western European Immigration to America for Ancestry Research
- Eastern European Immigration to America for Ancestry Research
- Western Migration in America for Ancestry Research
Learn more about immigrant records at “Immigrant Records at the National Archives.”
America: People on the Move
When you stepped back and began looking at my ancestors as part of an ethnic group at a given time and place, you quickly see that America is a land of people on the move. Our ancestors were part of groups that, for specific reasons, felt a “push’ to move to escape political or religious oppression, wars, and violence, and major natural disasters. The reasons include:
- War or another armed conflict
- Famine or drought
- Disease
- Poverty
- Political corruption
- Disagreement with politics
- Religious intolerance
- Natural disasters
- Discontent with the natives, such as frequent harassment, bullying, and abuse
- Lack of employment opportunities
- These factors generally do not affect people in developed countries; even a natural disaster is unlikely to cause out-migration.
When you are pushed, where do you go? One senses the “pull” America had upon our ancestors. Economic and professional opportunities were the foundation for our ancestors coming to America. It was the availability of lands for farming, an abundance of jobs, and higher salaries. The reasons include:
- Higher incomes
- Lower taxes
- Better weather
- Better availability of employment
- Better medical facilities
- Better education facilities
- Better behavior among people
- Family reasons
- Political stability
- Religious tolerance
- Relative freedom
- Weather
- National prestige
The following immigration/migration profiles are provided as an example of valuable information for finding the origin of your ancestors and helping to understand your ethnic heritage better. This information is not all-inclusive, but it will be a good starting point for you to expand upon.
Czechs and Slovaks Immigration
The Czechs, whose kingdom of Bohemia had been taken over by the Austrian Empire hundreds of years before, had long been dissatisfied with the Habsburg rule.
- The Czechs were a Slavic people from Bohemia, Moravia, and parts of Silesia, and the majority were Catholics, though there were Protestants and Jews among them.
- When World War I began, thousands of Czech soldiers immediately surrendered to the Russians rather than fight for Austria-Hungary.
- They were reorganized as the Czech Legion, which fought on the Russian side.
- During the war, the Czechs joined with the Slovaks and other suppressed nationalities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in pushing for their state.
- The Czechoslovak Republic was established in 1918.
- At least five nationalities within the new nation were Czechs, Germans, Slovaks, Moravians, and Ruthenians (Ukrainians).
An estimated four hundred thousand Czechs arrived in the United States between 1848 and 1914. The Czechs set up urban communities in New York, Chicago, Cleveland, and St. Louis. Many Czechs headed west to establish farming communities in Iowa, Nebraska, Wisconsin, and Texas.
- In 1847 Czech immigrants established their first settlement in Texas at Catspring in Austin County.
- Major Czech settlements were established in Wisconsin the following year, especially in and around Racine.
- By 1855 Czech communities had been established in Chicago, St. Louis, and New York. In 1856 New York became the home of the first U.S. school teaching the Czech language and history.
Czech newspapers were established in several of the new communities. The Czechs generally strove to preserve their culture and language. In many of the towns where they settled, little English was spoken. The Slovaks in Hungary immigrated to the United States in large numbers.
- The Magyars had oppressed them in Hungary, and most wished to escape tyranny, and they also migrated to improve their circumstances.
- Most Slovaks who immigrated did not have professional skills appropriate to the U.S. economy and took work in the coal mines and the steel mills.
After World War II, Czechoslovakia became a Soviet-ruled nation.
- After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, the Slovaks and the Czechs decided to separate. In 1993, they became the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.
- Slovakia has had economic difficulties connected with modernizing and industrializing since the end of Soviet rule.
Eastern European Immigration
What are some of the important immigration facts?
Between 1820 and 1920, somewhere between 3.7 and 5 million people emigrated from the Austro-Hungarian Empire to the United States. The emigrants were Czechs, Slavs, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Poles, Magyars, Austrians, and others.
Between 1867 and 1914, some 1,815,117 Hungarians immigrated to the United States, making up nearly half of all the emigrants from Austria-Hungary. About four hundred thousand Czechs arrived during that time, making up about 10 percent of the Austria-Hungary immigrants.
After Poland was divided between Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Prussia, so many Poles came to the United States that Polish America became known as the “Fourth Province” of Poland—the other three being those areas controlled by Russia, Austria, and Prussia.
In the nineteenth century, Russia had expanded its empire to the point that it held about one-sixth of Earth’s land surface. In the 1930s, many Russians who had gone into exile in other European cities after the Russian Revolution felt the need to leave Europe altogether in the wake of the rising Nazi movement. More than one million people born in Russia but living elsewhere in Europe immigrated to the United States.
The second wave of Russian immigrants who arrived in the United States in the years after World War II (1939–45) were confronted by the Red Scare. This wave of anti-communism became a witch-hunt in which many innocent people were harassed and lost their jobs. Russian Americans felt driven to hide their ethnicity and tried to appear as much like other Americans to avoid trouble, even though many had left their home to escape from the communist regime.
Hungarian Immigration
Why did the Hungarians come, and where did the Hungarians settle?
Hungarian – Magyar – immigrants represent emigration from Eastern Europe than are either Poles or Jews.
- Males were highly predominant among the Magyars (two-thirds), and nearly half of them returned to Hungary, some of them, to be sure, to return to America. Magyars are found in significant numbers in only one nation, Hungary.
- The data from the 1910 census show that more than 99 percent of those immigrants claiming Magyar as a mother tongue emigrated from Hungary. That, conversely, Magyars were a minority (46 percent) of immigrants from Hungary.
There was a small Hungarian presence as early as the American Revolution when several professional soldiers came.
- But the first Hungarians to arrive in any number were political refugees, followers of Lajos Kossuth after the failed revolutions of 1848.
- Kossuth himself returned to Europe, but hundreds stayed. Military veterans were among the roughly eight hundred Hungarians who served in the Union Army during the Civil War. These men left few traces after the war and established no communities. Hungarians began with labor migration in the late nineteenth century.
- Worsening economic conditions in Hungary after 1880 and the attraction of relatively high-paying jobs in the United States drew members of ethnic minorities in Hungary to the United States.
- As economic conditions worsened, better-off Magyar began to come to America. Hungarian statistics show that in 1899 only one emigrant in four was a Magyar speaker, but by 1903 they comprised a majority.
The Magyar migration was short-lived, extending from the late 1890s to the outbreak of WWI. In that time, more than 450,000 Hungarians came to America.
- Most were under thirty, and 88 percent were literate, about 30 percent higher than the rate for Hungary as a whole.
- Like members of most other Eastern European ethnic groups, coming primarily without industrial skills took dirty, dangerous jobs at wages low for America but high for Hungary. Initially, they worked long hours, spent little, and saved significant amounts to send or take back home with them.
While many Hungarians started coal mining, more eventually worked in heavy industry in the Northeast and Middle West. Ohio and Cleveland, in particular, became a focal point of Hungarian settlement. In the subsequent decades, very different kinds of immigrants came from Hungary. In the 1920s and 1930s, refugees from the Horthy regime and later from Nazism came to the United States.
In the years immediately after WWII, some twenty thousand Hungarians were among the displaced persons and other refugees admitted to the United States. In contrast, after the failed Hungarian Revolution of 1956, some thirty-five thousand persons, many freedom fighters who resisted the Soviet occupation forces, also came to the United States.
While some have settled in places where long-standing Hungarian communities exist, in Cleveland or New York, others settled by various voluntary agencies in the Sun Belt of the South and West.
Polish Immigration
Why did the Polish come, and where did the Polish settle?
Poland’s neighbors Russia, Prussia, and Austria took advantage of the internal problems and invaded the region.
- They began dividing Poland among themselves beginning in 1772 by taking about one-third of its territory.
- They partitioned it (divided it into parts) a second time in 1793. Upon the third and final partitioning of 1795, the nation of Poland ceased to exist. Austria-Hungary took over Galicia, Prussia got northwestern Poland, and Russia took Ukraine and eastern and central Poland.
- The Polish nobility was not happy with the partitioning of Poland. Under the new governments, they lost the extensive powers they had enjoyed. Starting in the 1760s, many began to emigrate.
- They often set up exile communities (groups of people who had fled or been sent away from their home) in European cities, trying to stir interest in restoring their former country.
- Some of these exiles became ardent proponents of democracy. When they heard about the American Revolution (1775–83), quite a few traveled across the Atlantic to help the American colonists fight the British.
- Among these adventurous Poles was Polish statesman and military hero Tadeusz Kosciuszko (1746–1817), who later returned to the United States to serve as a link between President Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) and leaders of the French Revolution (1789–99). Count Kazimierz Pulaski (1747–1779), who had distinguished himself defending Poland against the Russians before the partitioning, also came to fight with the rebels in the Revolution.
- Pulaski formed his cavalry and earned “the father of the American cavalry” before being killed in Savannah, Georgia.
- Kosciuszko and Pulaski were just the beginning of a long period of Polish migration to the United States.
- The Poles repeatedly tried to rebel against their foreign rulers and restore Poland as a nation, but the Russians and Austrians were too strong for them. After several significant uprisings in the nineteenth century, many members of the Polish upper class chose to escape the new oppressive governments.
- So many came to the United States that Polish America became known as Poland’s “Fourth Province,” the other three being those controlled by Russia, Austria, and Prussia. (Another term for the Polish community outside of Poland is “Polonia.”)
- A few peasant farmers also came to America, looking for better economic opportunities. They set up Polish farming communities in places like Panna Maria, Texas, the first permanent Polish community in America, founded in 1854.
Polish immigration from the 1770s to about1870issometimesreferred to as the “first wave,” but more often, the first wave is considered to have begun in 1870 when Polish serfs were given their freedom and began to emigrate.
- Just as the serfs were freed, the United States began encouraging immigration to help rebuild the country after the devastation of the American Civil War. Up to two million Poles immigrated to the United States between 1870 and 1914.
Most Polish immigrants in this first large wave of immigration, also called the “old emigration,” were single young men looking for the chance to work at wage-earning jobs, save up their money, and return to Poland.
- Some 30 percent returned to Poland, but the rest stayed in the United States. As uneducated (though generally literate) peasant farmers, they were unskilled and unprepared for the industrialized world of America.
- They took whatever jobs they could find, working in mines, mills, factories, slaughterhouses, refineries, and foundries.
- Once established in their new home, many sent for their families or returned to Poland to marry and then brought their wives back to the United States. Women and children went to work then to support the family.
With the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the defeat of Austria-Hungary and Germany in World War I, Poland regained its independence, forming its government in 1918. Nazi Germany invaded Poland at the very beginning of World War II in 1939 and oppressed the country terribly throughout the war.
- Poland suffered tremendous losses of life and property. An estimated six million Poles were killed, half of them Jews. The remaining population suffered near starvation throughout the Nazi occupation.
- In January 1945, Poland was liberated by the Soviet and Polish armies, and it quickly formed a new government. Poland’s communist and socialist groups merged in December 1948 to form the Polish United Workers’ Party (PZPR).
- The PZPR consistently followed a pro-Soviet policy and renounced all dealings with the Western powers.
The second wave, or “new emigration,” of Polish Americans came to the United States under the Displaced Persons Act of 1948, which allowed Europeans who had been displaced by the destruction of World War II to enter the country as immigrants. These second-wave Polish Americans tended to be well-educated intellectuals, the writers, artists, and scholars the Nazis had targeted for elimination. A number of them were Jewish.
The third wave of Polish immigration to the United States began in the 1990s and continues today, though small. Like first-wave immigrants, the immigrants are mostly young men hoping to find better economic opportunities in America to save up their money and return home to Poland.
What were the Polish social and work conditions?
The Polish American community has been in the United States for several generations, and, as is often the case, traditional Polish ways are being lost by later generations. Polish language proficiency is limited or nonexistent among third- and subsequent-generation Polish Americans.
Many Polish Americans chose to shorten or otherwise Americanize their names to blend in better with the mainstream society when they first arrived.
Immigration officials shortened some arriving Poles’ names on their entry papers because they either could not understand the actual name or did not care to write it out. Today some young Polish Americans are reclaiming their actual Polish names.
What was the Polish religious background?
Nearly all Polish Americans are either Catholic or Jewish. When Polish Catholics arrived in America, they found the Roman Catholic churches controlled by Irish Catholics earlier. The Irish Catholics did not welcome the newcomers, and Polish Americans began establishing their churches whenever and wherever possible.
In 1896 several Polish Americans separated from the Roman Catholic Church entirely and formed the Polish National Catholic Church (PNCC). The PNCC is very similar to the Roman Catholic Church in two critical ways: PNCC priests marry, and church officials are elected rather than appointed.
Russian Immigration
Why and when did the Russians come?
Before the Russian Revolution, there had been several significant waves of immigration to the United States.
- The first Russians to set foot on the North American continent were fur traders from Siberia who traveled across the Bering Strait (a strait that separates Russia and Alaska) in the 1700s in search of wild animals.
- They settled in Alaska and maintained a Russian colony there.
- During the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, Russians from the middle class had fled Russia to escape the oppressive czarist government of that time, many immigrating to the United States.
- When Alexander II emancipated the Russian serfs in 1861, a host of the freed peasants immigrated to America. Between 1861 and 1914, nine out of ten Russian immigrants to the United States were peasants.
- Most were single young men, hoping to find employment and a better life in America.
- A few young women also came to escape arranged marriages in their homeland.
- During this same time, several German Russian Mennonites (a Protestant sect that rejects infant baptism, ritual, and levels of authority within the Church and does not believe in war and violence), Molokans (another dissenting Protestant sect), and Jews fled religious persecution in Russia and settled in America.
An estimated two million people left the Russian empire to settle in the United States by 1914; of those, probably only about one hundred thousand were Russian-speaking. Most of the emigrants were Jews and Poles, and some were East Slavs from the Austro-Hungarian Empire (designated as Russians because they belonged to the Orthodox Church).
- Because so many of them were not genuinely ethnic Russians, the first immigrants from Russia have not been counted in historians’ designated waves of Russian immigration to the United States. However, many historians today think they should be.
The first significant wave of Russian American immigration, according to many scholars and ethnic Russian Americans, did not occur until the Russian Revolution.
- It consisted mainly of Russian middle class and aristocracy members who suddenly found it uncomfortable to be in their homeland under the communists. About forty thousand Russians came to the United States in the first few years after the Revolution.
- In the 1930s, many more Russians who had earlier gone into exile in other European cities felt the need to leave Europe altogether in the wake of the rising Nazi movement. They tended to settle in the large American cities, particularly New York.
- More than a million people born in Russia but living elsewhere in Europe by 1930 immigrated to the United States.
- Few of these Russian immigrants were coming from Russia itself. When Stalin took over the Soviet government in 1930, he introduced strict regulations forbidding emigration. Only 14,060 Russians managed to escape the Soviet Union and come to America for the next fourteen years.
Most of these first-wave Russian Americans were well-educated, skilled laborers or professionals. They had a much easier time adapting to life in the industrialized United States than the peasants of earlier immigrations.
- However, in 1919, Russian Americans faced a surge of anti-Russian discrimination in the United States. The country was going through a “Red Scare,” a period of fear that communists were trying to take over the U.S. government. As the fear became a mass panic, many Russian Americans came under suspicion of being communists (called “reds”).
- Some three thousand Russian Americans were arrested and jailed as suspected communists, and although most were soon released, a number were deported (sent back) to the Soviet Union.
- The Red Scare of 1919 to 1920 drove many Russian Americans to hide their ethnicity. In actuality, very few Russian Americans were communist sympathizers.
- Most had fled the communist government. In their rush to assimilate to avoid harassment or worse, Russian Americans would lose much of their Russian culture and heritage. Many Americanized their names, stopped speaking Russian and adopted American customs.
In 1941 the forces of Nazi leader Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) invaded the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union lost more than eleven million soldiers and seven million civilians during World War II.
- Stalin wished to form a buffer zone of friendly countries surrounding the Soviet Union when the war was over. With the help of the Soviet military, Stalin helped the communist parties in many of these countries gain power.
- By 1948 Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and other Eastern European countries had communist governments.
- During the war, the United States, an ally of the Soviet Union, looked on with horror and distrust at the tremendous power that the Soviets suddenly wielded.
- The Soviet Union and the United States had become the two superpowers of the planet, and distrust and hostility between them grew to massive proportions.
- This was the beginning of the Cold War (1945–91) between the Soviet Union and the United States and other Western powers—a period of solid tensions and the constant threat of war, but no actual armed conflict.
The Cold War set the atmosphere the second wave of Russian immigrants would encounter after settling.
- Most had entered the United States under the Displaced Persons Act of 1948, which relaxed the ongoing immigration laws. Europeans whose destruction of World War II had disrupted lives and homes could immigrate to the United States.
- Those Russians who immigrated encountered a second surge of anticommunism in America, led by Senator Joseph McCarthy (1908–1957), who claimed to have proof that communists had infiltrated the government and even the military.
- This second Red Scare became a witch-hunt, during which many innocent people were harassed and lost their jobs.
- Russian Americans again felt driven to hide their ethnicity and tried to appear as much like other Americans as possible to avoid trouble.
No one was legally allowed to leave the Soviet Union until the 1960s and 1970s, when Russian Jews were permitted to immigrate to Israel. Some then moved to the United States shortly after arriving in Israel.
The third wave of Russian immigration to the United States, beginning with Russian Jews in the early 1970s, picked up speed with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
- Since then, almost one million Russians have immigrated to the United States. Most of them are Russian Jews, and most have settled in New York City. Ethnic Russians have been arriving steadily since the collapse of the Soviet Union, however, perhaps driven by the unstable economy in Russia.
Where did the Russians settle?
The 2000 U.S. Census lists 2,980,776 persons with Russian ancestry, but this figure includes many, not ethnic Russians.
- The census reports about 128,000 foreign-born Russian Americans, but some sources suggest that this number is far higher and rapidly growing.
- According to market surveys, Russian-born people in the United States represent the second largest group (after the Mexican-born) of the nation’s foreign-born population. In 1990, 44 percent of Russian Americans lived in Northeastern states.
- The five states with the highest numbers of Russian Americans, in descending order, are New York, California, Illinois, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. In the early twenty-first century, Minnesota’s Russian-born population has also been multiplying.
Most of the Russian immigrants who have arrived since the 1960s and 1970s have settled in and around New York City. Brighton Beach in Brooklyn, New York, is one of the few Russian neighborhoods left in America.
The Russian language is spoken regularly, shop signs are Russian, and people can easily buy Russian goods. Some 110,000 Russian Americans lived in the Outer Richmond district of San Francisco in 1990, the most extensive collection of Russian Americans in a single neighborhood in the United States. Russian Americans have been moving to Portland, Oregon, since the 1990s, creating a Russian American population of about forty thousand there in the early 2000s.
Other small Russian American neighborhoods exist, but there are no real “Russiantowns” today, except Brighton Beach and the San Francisco Russian American community.
What were the Russians social and work conditions?
Many first-generation Russian Americans strive to learn English as quickly as possible to blend in with their American environment and enable themselves to get better jobs.
- Their children grow up speaking both English and Russian, but when they establish homes of their own, they usually speak only English.
- Therefore, most Russian Americans no longer speak Russian by the third generation.
Most Russian Americans are closely tied to their families, mainly first- and second-generation immigrants.
- Elderly relatives are cared for at home, and women often give birth at home. Young women often live with their parents until they marry, and sons settle near their parents after marriage.
- Later-generation Russian Americans are more Americanized, focusing on individual nuclear family units (including only the parents and their children).
What was their religious background?
Most ethnic Russians who immigrated to the United States were members of the Russian Orthodox Church.
- It is one of several branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church, which separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1054. It is called “orthodox” because it follows the original Christian writings, using the same prayers today used in the early days of Christianity.
- The Russian Orthodox Church is very similar to the Greek Orthodox Church. Many Russian Americans belong to the Orthodox Church in North America (OCNA), founded in Alaska in 1792.
- The OCNA today uses English in its services. The more conservative Russian Orthodox Church in Exile (ROCE), which started in the former Yugoslavia in 1922 and spread to the United States after World War II, uses only Russian in its services. The OCNA has about one million members, and the much smaller ROCE has only one hundred thousand members.
About half of the Russian American population is Jewish; a minority belongs to various Protestant denominations.
- A tiny group of Russian Americans belongs to the Old Believers sect of the Russian Orthodox Church, following the teachings of the Church before changes that were made in 1654.
- These Old Believers live in intentionally isolated communities in Alaska and Oregon, speak only Russian, wear seventeenth-century clothing, and keep themselves separate from the rest of society.
The source material for this resource is a compilation from the following references:
1. Benson, Sonia. U.S. Immigration and Migration Almanac. Ed. Sarah Hermsen. UXL-GALE, 2004. eNotes.com. 2006.
2. Daniels, Roger. Coming to America. A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life, New York, New York: HarperCollins, 2002.
3. Dollarhide, William. British Origins of American Colonists, 1629 – 1775, Bountiful, UT: Heritage Quest, 1997.
4. Dollarhide, William. Map Guide of American Migration Routes, 1735 – 1815, Bountiful, UT: Heritage Quest, 2000.
5. Wills, Chuck. Destination America. The People and Cultures That Created A Nation, New York, New York: D.K. Publishing, Inc., 2005.
6. Research Outlines by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Salt Lake City, UT.
