Use the following 35 U.S. Census research tips and tricks for family history research.
I have been researching the 1940-1790 U.S. Censuses since about 2014. The following are important lessons, tips and tricks I have learned when searching and mentoring others to succeed in the U.S. Census. If you are interested in learning more about how to research specific U.S. Census years, start here:
- 1950 U.S. Census Research Guide for Beginners
- 1940 U.S. Census Research Guide for Beginners
- 1930 U.S. Census Research Guide for Beginners
- 1920 U.S. Census Research Guide for Beginners
- 1910 U.S. Census Research Guide for Beginners
- 1900 U.S. Census Research Guide for Beginners
You will find the following topics in this article:
Table of Contents
Find 35 census research tips and tricks divided into five sections:
Preparing for U.S. Census Research
- Learning Begins with A Question
- Build A Family Profile
- Keep A Research Log and Cite Your Sources
- Preparations Before Using A Census
- Understand the Difference Between Primary and Secondary Information
Searching Surnames in the U.S. Census
- Misspelled Names Are Ok
- Finding Missing Individuals in Known Location
- Look for Cultural Naming Patterns
- First and Middle Names
- Look Carefully at Other People with the Same Surnames
- Search/Extract Information on Individuals with the Same Surname
How to Find Everyone in the U.S. Census
- Make An Alphabet “Sampler” from Actual Census Entries
- Copy how the Census Taker Forms Each Letter
- Use Maps in Conjunction with the Census Schedules
- Focus on Location
- Search the Original Record
- Search Every Line of the Census District
- Learn About the Neighbors in Census Research
- Search All of the Siblings
- Search All Individuals Living in the Same Household
- Look Beyond Names and Relationships
- When Questions Arise in the Census
- Return to the Census When You Have More Experience
- Look Carefully Who is Living Next Door
Understand Ages in the U.S. Census
- Use the Census to Calculate the Birth Year of Individual
- Be Careful with Age the Census
- Study the Ages of All Family Members in Each Census
Searching Beyond the U.S. Census Tips
- Search to See If Individual Served in the U.S. Military
- Searching Online Databases
- Searching Census with Online/Database Search Engines
- Research the State Census
- Census Closest to Death Can Yield Many Records
- Search Every Census During an Individual’s Life
- Search Every Census Schedule
- Use 1860-1900 Migration Patterns to Find Records
Preparing for U.S. Census Research
1. Learning Begins with A Question
Questions and answers are the foundation for exchanging genealogical information. We have many ways to learn, but we set the stage for learning and sharing what we know by simply asking questions.
Narrow the focus of your questions. It is easy to become overwhelmed by the number of questions that need answers. It’s been my experience with research that the further back I go, the more questions I ask.
The key is to identify one person or a few individuals of the same family. Research efforts move forward faster if you focus on one individual and one question at a time. Use your pedigree charts and family group sheets to help identify questions. Make a research plan listing the questions you want to research.
Here are some examples of initial questions and follow-up questions I have created to guide my research plan development, personal skill development, and research process:
- Define desired information. What information do I want? It’s not uncommon to read and hear questions from new researchers that appear to be asking the responder to provide answers to every question the asker will ever need now or in the future about a given family line or individual. The questions you ask determine your research path. Know what you want to learn. Identify the information you are seeking.
- Scope a research trip. How do I prepare for a library visit? What does the library have that will help me with my research? What is a good book for beginners? How do I research a distance? What are some valuable tips for successful genealogical research?
- Searching information. When searching for information, I ask. What records do I search if I want to find birth records? Death records? Immigration records? Adoption records? Maiden name? City or parish of a foreign country?
- Immigration. Concerning immigration, I ask: How do I locate passenger lists? Where do I find information on immigration and naturalization? What is available on the Internet? Where was the individual/family born? His parents? What language did they speak in the home? What language was their newspaper printed in? What year did they immigrate? What language did they speak before they came to the United States? What is their status — AL (alien), PA (papered, or applied for citizenship), or NA (naturalized or received citizenship)?
- Individual profile. When developing an individual/family profile, I ask: Where was the individual/family born? Was the individual/family married? Single? Widowed? Divorced? Married more than once? Where do I find vital records? Did the individual/family own a home or rent? Was it a farm or a house? Was it mortgaged or owned free and clear? Homesteaded? How much was the mortgage payment or the rent? What was their occupation, profession, or trade? Did they own their own business or employ others? Work for someone else? What was the type of business or trade?
- Record repositories. Concerning record repositories, I ask: What resources are available at the local library? The county or regional library? What about university libraries and archives? State archives? Local, county or state historical societies? Is there a local, county or state Genealogy society? What is available in the homes of family members?
- Each census. For census records, I ask: Which census enumerations were taken during the life of the individual/family? What maps exist for the period the individual/family lived? Where can I find blank census forms to help me record the information I find?
- Community. And for individuals/family in the community, I ask: Were there relatives in the community where the individual/family resided? With whom did the individual/family do business? Where did his children find their spouses? Was it an ethnic community? If so, what language did they speak at home? When was the community founded? What records were available? What disasters had the community experienced? How had wars affected the community and its records? What churches were in the community? Are records available?
2. Build an Individual/Family Profile
I make it practice to start with the information I already know or suspect about the individual/family. I refer to this as the individual/family profile. The more you know, the more options you have of correctly identifying and connecting the family from one generation to the next. This is a list that you will build and work with throughout your research. The information I like to include in my profile include:
- Names of known and suspect family members
- Relationships of known and suspect family members
o Father (i.e., fathers, step-fathers)
o Mother (i.e., mothers, step-mothers)
o Children (i.e., brothers, sisters, step-children, adoptions)
o Brothers’/sisters’ –in-law and their spouses (i.e., persons married to grown children of the family)
o Grandparents (i.e., fathers’ side, mothers’ side, step-parent’s side)
o Siblings of parents and their families (i.e., fathers’ side, mothers’ side, step-parent’s side and the members of their households)
o Neighbors (i.e., names, surnames and family members)
o Group (i.e., this could include members of the organization, church, etc.)
o Borders (i.e., persons living in the household but not family members)
o Servants/slaves (i.e., persons who are identified as servants/slaves) - List of surname and variations
- Locations of where known and suspect family members (i.e., towns, regions, states)
- Locations of known and variations of the family surname (i.e., towns, regions, states)
- List of documents I already have organized in a timeline format
3. Keep A Research Log and Cite Your Sources
I can’t stress how important it is to keep a log of your research. Document where you have been and what you have found. Even when you haven’t found anything in the family, write it down. Good records become valuable incorrectly analyzing your research and giving other researchers a trail to follow.
Keep a to-do list—a plan as to what research you seek to perform. Organize the plan, so the most critical research gets done first. Often, when you focus on top priority research, many other items on your list are also completed.
Group your to-do items by the source you will use to conduct research.
Create a “future research” file. As you conduct your focused research, you will always come up with ideas for research you want to conduct outside the focus of your current line of inquiry. Record it—whether it’s an idea, a paragraph, a printed document, a photocopy, or whatever else—put it in the file, and forget about it until you are done with the task at hand. You can then go through the file later, organize your notes, and start the next task. Don’t be surprised if you begin doubling your accomplishments.
4. Preparations Before Using A Census
Write down as many facts as you know about the individual/family. Spell the individual/family name as it appears. Think of as many name variations as you can. Know the state and county that you are searching in. Keep in mind that you may need to check neighboring counties. I have researched some families that have lived on state lines and found families in both states. If you go to a library to search microfilm, call the library ahead of time to find out what they have available.
5. Understand the Difference Between Primary and Secondary Information
Remember, the census taker asked questions about the household’s residence, and answers were provided based on the knowledge of the person being asked. The census includes both primary and secondary information. Primary is the most reliable (i.e., location and address). Secondary information is less reliable such as the memory of an individual, which includes. Secondary information in the census includes names, head of the house, ages, marital status, education, military service, birthplace, occupation and citizenship.
Does it mean that it is wrong information? No. It simply means that it is based on one person’s memory, and thus it is easy to see why information can vary from census to census. That is why I strongly encourage researchers to search out other documents, censuses, sources to build a case for the individual/family you are documenting. I have found most information provided on census records to be very reliable.
The areas where I see the most conflict/variation are in the ages and spelling of names. I have also found variations/inconsistencies with information with answers to questions that are considered sensitive, and individuals may not be comfortable giving answers. Some of the areas I have found include age, health and history (e.g., deaf, dumb, blind, idiotic, insane, conflict questions), family wealth and status, birthplace, color
Searching Surnames in the U.S. Census
6. Misspelled Names Are Ok
Never assume that the surname you are researching has stayed the same through the generations or even through a lifetime. It wasn’t until the mid-1800s that spelling conventions became common. Spelling was a phonetic practice, meaning you wrote down the name as you heard it. Census enumerators, priests, doctors, lawyers, school teachers, tax collectors, and any other persons needing to write down the individual/family name probably had some input on how it was written. Be prepared to find the name spelled differently for every record you find. When record the spelling in your Genealogy/research database, leave the spelling as you found it. And, of course, make sure to add any new spelling to the family/name reference list to be aware of spelling variation.
7. Finding Missing Individuals in Known Location
If you’re sure the individual/family lived in a specific area, but you can’t find them, consider looking for alternate surname spellings. If your surname was “Brown,” search spellings like
- Brawn
- Brun
- Brown
- Browne
- Broune
- Braune
Consider looking for names that have been Americanized to help with pronunciation or to set themselves apart from other families or cultures. For example:
- Giovanni becomes John
- Zbigniew becomes Charles
- Dimitrios becomes James, Jim
- Sandeep becomes Sandi, Sandy
- Grun becomes Green
- Concetta becomes Connie
- Schmidt becomes Smith
If you know the origin of the name (i.e., German, Swedish), ask someone who knows the language to pronounce the name. They will be able to apply pronunciation rules for the original language and give you a chance to spell the name as census taker phonetically might have done, translate the meaning of what Americanized, and provide insights into how the name might be spelled in the original language.
Never assume that the surname you are researching has stayed the same through the generations or even through a lifetime. Census enumerators, priests, doctors, lawyers, school teachers, tax collectors, and any other persons with a need to write down the individual/family name probably had some input on how it was written. I have learned that I should not be surprised if my name is spelled differently for every record I find. For example, one research found the following:
- Reardin was found in a land record
- Rairdon was found in a census
- Rarden was found in a church record
- Rardin was found in a court record
- Reardin was found in a military record
I have one record where my surname is spelled four different ways in one paragraph.
Search first within a 25-mile radius of the area where you believe the individual/family lived. Expand your search by 25 miles until you feel you have exhausted possibilities. I have often expanded my search to include the entire state and look for all areas where the surname was found. If your family lived near a state boundary, make sure you search the neighboring state. Expand your research and locate where else the surname is located within the state.
8. Look for Cultural Naming Patterns
Many cultures have particular naming patterns that provide essential clues in identifying family units connected from one generation to the next. When working on a family you know to be a specific religion or nationality, check to see if there are naming patterns common to that group.
You probably already know at least one country from which the individual/family comes. Do a little research to see if there are naming patterns associated with the culture and whether your family used the pattern. One of my ancestral lines is Scotts-Irish. The Scotts-Irish families follow the custom of naming their children after the grandparents in the following manner:
- Firstborn son named for the paternal grandfather.
- Second son was named after the maternal grandfather.
- Third son is named after the father.
- Firstborn daughter named for the maternal grandmother.
- Second daughter is named after the paternal grandmother.
- Third daughter is named for the mother.
Notes on Scottish naming patterns. This practice could cause families to have two children with the same name if the grandparents had the same name. The process also started over if the parent remarried, so it is common to find half brothers or sisters with the same names. Not all Scottish families followed this pattern, but many did long after leaving Scotland. My family used this pattern from the middle 1700s through the middle 1800s.
One variation of the pattern above was for the eldest son to be named after the mother’s father and the eldest daughter after the father’s mother.
I have had scenario’s where the firstborn son was to receive the name of John. Within one year of birth, John died. The next son to be born was named John. Even though this child was the second son, his name was treated as though he was the first son born. I had another family where the first four sons passed away before five, with the fifth son living to become an adult. Every one of the boys received the name of George. At first, I thought I had just one person, but when I understood the cultural naming pattern, I was able to sort through the names I saw in the census records.
When researching a German family line, I noticed that all the children were given two names but were called by the second. All the boys in the family frequently had the same first name or a variation of the same name, such as Johann/Hans, but were called by their second names. And the girls in the family might all have the first name, Anna or Maria. The children may be referred to with both names or just the second. Here are the children of Conrad Wagner and
Anna Maria Schneider:
Boys
- Conrad Hans
- Conrad Georg
- Conrad Wolfgang
- Conrad Thomas
- Conrad Johnannes
Girls
- Maria Elizabeth
- Maria Christena
- Maria Caterina
When you have become aware of such naming patterns within families, you will be able to sort out which person you are researching when you see different documents that may use different names for the same child. It can keep you from making mistakes of adding more people to the family than exist. For example, when an adult, Maria Christena returns to using his first given name (Maria) after being known by his second as a child (Christena).
Another naming pattern I have found in my family line is that of patronymics. Patronymics names of the children are derived from a father’s name or paternal side of the family. They are particularly prevalent in the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. For example, if your father was named Eric and your son was named John, his name would be John Ericssen which means that John is the son of Eric. If Eric had a daughter named Anne, her name would be Anne Ericsdatter, meaning Anne is the daughter of Eric.
Every generation, the last name (surname) will change. For example,
- Eric Hanssen had a son named John.
- John’s name was John Ericssen, and he had a son named Thomas.
- Thomas’ name was Thomas Johnson.
The son can be written as either son/sen, and the daughter can be written as datter/dotter, which is usually country-related.
At first, it may seem that patronymics are somewhat confusing, but once you get the hang of it, you will be able to sort out who belongs to whom between generations. When the individual/family immigrated from these countries to America, the practice of patronymics may have continued for a generation or two. Still, most families discontinued the practice in the 1800s and decided to keep the last name. For example, if your last name is like Jesseson/sen, Erikson/sen, Hanson/sen, Larson/sen, Pederson/sen, the individual/family stems from patronymic origins.
I have also found a version of patronymics used in the individual/family lines from the United Kingdom. The suffix “son” was used. For example, I have seen family names with Williamson and Jameson expressed as Williams and James. These surnames did not necessarily change every generation. I have also seen other prefixes and suffixes that were used to denote sons or daughters among them. For example, you will see
- O (Irish)
- Ab or Ap (Welch)
- Mac or Mc (Scottish)
- Fitz (English)
- Ich or Itch (Cornish)
Many of my Welch ancestors who came to Utah in the 1850s were buried with Welch inscriptions on their gravestones, many of which include patronymics. The Welsh for son is “Mab/ap.” For example, there are two headstones that I am thinking of
- Gwenenllian ferch Rhys means Gwenllian, the daughter of Ryes
- Madog ap Rhys means Madog, the sons of Rhys
As I learned about Welch patronymics, it was insightful to see how the patronymic origins were morphed into modern-day surnames. For example
- ab Owain became Bowen
- ap Rhys became Price
- ab Evan became Bevan
- ap Hywel became Powell
- ap Hugh became Pugh
By being aware of cultural naming patterns, I have seen clues and resolve issues connecting families within a generation and from one generation to the next. A good starting point would be to conduct a simple Google search such as
- Scotts-Irish or Scotch-Irish naming patterns
- Catholic naming patterns
- German naming customs
- French naming patterns
- Patronymics
- Scandinavian etymology
- Swedish naming practices
9. First and Middle Names
You never know what first name the individual/family will be known by. Think of yourself, friends, and relatives. Some go by birth name, nickname, middle name and initial. Be on the lookout for these variations with each census.
Middle names. It was common for families to name their children after parents, grandparents and give them a middle name by which they would be known. For example, James Albert Johnson would be known by Albert or Bert Johnson.
Initials. I have found names changing from census to census with the use of the initial. For example, James Isaac Steward in the 1800 census became J. Steward in 1810 James. I. Steward in 1840 and James Stewart in 1850.
Nicknames. I have found many occasions where nicknames are used instead of the birth name. I have made it a practice to always include possible nicknames in the individual/family profile just in case I need search variations of the name. The following are examples of nicknames I have found.
- Margret becomes Meg, Megan
- Mary becomes Moll, Polly, Molly
- Eleanor becomes Nell, Nellie, Nelly
- Richard becomes Dick
- Robert becomes Bob, dobbin
- James becomes Jim, Jimmy
10. Look Carefully at Other People with the Same Surnames
Look closely at persons with the same surname. Could they be a relative? Does the individual show up as a child in the earlier census? Search other records such as deeds, wills to see if the person shows up. Could individuals be in-laws? Check marriages of the county for husbands of sisters, aunts, mothers.
11. Search/Extract Information on Individuals with the Same Surname
In my research, I have often found the individual/family connections among those with the same surname.
Could they be a relative? Does the individual show up as a child in the earlier census? Search other records such as deeds, wills to see if the person shows up. Could individuals be in-laws? Check marriages of the county for husbands of sisters, aunts, mothers.
Make it a practice to extract all the persons with the same surname living in the same county. Are they family? They could be a family connection or related connection, such as where they came from. If the individual/family lives near a state our county border, go ahead and extract the persons with the same surnames from neighboring counties. I have usually found important clues and connections among those with the same surname that has enhanced my research.
How to Find Everyone in the U.S. Census
12. Make An Alphabet “Sampler” from Actual Census Entries
If you encounter illegible writing, you may want to study the enumerator’s handwriting who recorded the census form you’re looking at. You can do this by picking out the most legible letters and words and working from there. For example, the enumerator listing Abraham Lincoln (Illinois) wrote the letter “L” in a way that resembles an “S” and without looking at other words on the page, one might think that he was a “Sawyer” instead of a “Lawyer.”
13. Copy how the Census Taker Forms Each Letter
Place a piece of white paper directly on the microfilm viewing surface or printout and trace over the image. This will help you decipher how the census taker formed the letters so as not to misinterpret the spelling of names and other data recorded in the census. Become familiar with the names in the locale you are searching. Make good guesses from even partially illegible entries. If needed, enlarge the image on a screen or via magnifying glass to interpret what you see.
You can enlarge or reduce the image as needed for clarity. Another idea is to turn the digital image from a positive image to a negative. Or lay a pink or yellow piece of paper on the viewing surface of the microfilm reader to enhance contrast. Copy entries exactly as you find them, even if you suspect they are incorrect.
- If you are having a hard time reading the census taker’s handwriting, take the time to learn how he formed his letters, such as a, f, h, j, p, and s. This is where I have found the most transcription errors. I will look for names/words that I know containing these letters and then compare how the census taker wrote the names of the individual/family.
14. Use Maps in Conjunction with the Census Schedules
Using maps in conjunction with the census schedules is impor¬tant. State and county boundaries have changed over the years so that an individual may have lived in the same place for years but have been enumerated in several different counties. This is also important for urban dwellers since city precincts also changed with time. The use of city directories and books such as those listed in guidebooks will help provide clues to possible localities.
15. Focus on Location
In the 1850 census, we are provided information such as the city, village, town, and borough and county where the individual/family resides. This can help in defining geographic areas to search for the individual/family and records.
- When you search location, try to find a map that shows the county/state boundaries when the individual/family lived there to make sure you research all possible record repositories. For example, James Schreiber lived in Stanton County, Virginia, in the late 1700’s part of which later becomes West Virginia. When I expanded my research to West Virginia, I was able to find new records never before known to the individual/family.
- Search for historical/genealogical society in the county to learn about the community; records developed when the individual/family lived in the area, connect with other researchers researching the same surname, groups (i.e., church) the individual/family belonged.
- Use the location to look for resources such as churches, cemeteries, courthouses.
- Use the location to identify locations of modern-day record repositories that are near the place the individual/family lived (e.g., historical societies, genealogical societies, libraries, archives, courthouses.)
- If you can’t find the individual/family by name, try searching on the location for the information you know about the person. For example, you know the wife was 45 living in Calvert County, Maryland, in the 1850 census. Search the database for females, age 35 (or age range 32-37) in Calvert County, Maryland. Try using first name, marriage status, and age combinations with the location. Search variations might include:
o First name, sex (i.e., female), age, and location
o First name, age-range and location
o First name, age, marriage status (e.g., married) and location
o Sex (i.e., female), age and location
o Age and location
o First name and location
16. Search the Original Record
Much of the research we can do on census records are done online. The information we see is referred to as transcripts, meaning that someone who has looked at the original record has interpreted what has been written and provided it to you in an abbreviated format. Looking at the original record is a must. Take time to find the original digital image or photocopy microfilm of a full page. Look for census taker notes. See if there are any transcription errors. I have found an average of 10% errors in the transcripts from the original records. Look for other information that is not in the transcription.
17. Search Every Line of the Census District
Yes, I know that the online databases are very comprehensive, and finding the individual/family is 99.5% sure. As a practice, be thorough and search every line of the census district and neighboring districts where the individual/family lived. In my research, I have found members of the individual/family living with friends in other counties; surnames phonetically spelled, members of family listed by middle names or initials. Sometimes, I found census pages in the wrong order, family unit flowing from one page to the next, or the census taker was just given the wrong information. In one instance, I couldn’t find the family living in a group home that was listed near the end of the population schedule for the county.
18. Learn About the Neighbors in Census Research
For all the census years, one of the most valuable categories of information, sometimes overlooked by beginning researchers, is neighbors of the individual/family of your interest. Census information was gathered as the enumerator went from house to house, neighbor to neighbor, down the streets and roads.
When you begin census research, look carefully at other families in the census records after discovering the individual/family.
As you learn more about the individual/family’s history, go back and look at the census records you previously copied for the individual/family and note the surrounding households. Often you will see a new connection. You must examine and re-examine the clues again and again.
- Families with the same surname as the one you are researching will be of particular interest and look for similarities of unusual first names and coincidental places of birth.
- Look also for the similarity of unusual first names and coincidental places of birth.
- Families seldom moved alone from one area to another; they moved in groups related by blood, marriage, religion, ethnic origins, and social cliques. Tracking people across the country through time in the census records can be easier than tracking a single family.
For example:
- For my Thomas Lee where every I found him, I also found the Miller family. For James Schreiber, I found the McDonalds family.
- The closer I looked and studied the families, I found children marrying into the families, names as witnesses in church documents and land deals.
- I remember one occasion where I lost the individual/family. I looked for their neighbors and was able to relocate the individual/family.
- I have also found it valuable to reach out and connect with genealogists/researchers who are researching the neighbors. They have been able to help me overcome roadblocks, such as place of immigration, birth because they have had to resolve the same questions and from records and information found about the individual/family.
Researching the individual/family with a familiar name can present unique problems. For example, the John Jones family can be incredibly challenging. But if you find John’s son Samuel married the daughter of James Schreiber, and other in-laws of the Joneses included the Mullins, Abrahams, Allreds, and Rothchilds, you’ll have more names to look for in previous places of residence. People tended to marry within their own social and economic groups—identify kinship groups to look for in census records.
19. Search All of the Siblings
Make it a goal to find all of the individual/family’s (parents and siblings and their families) in every census taken during their lifetime. In my research, I have found it critical to find and search for every member of the individual/family. I will start with the earliest censuses when I see the family unit in the census and then move forward. I research not only the individual in the family unit but each of the parents and siblings. As the siblings leave home and start their families, I will follow and record their lives as they appear in each census. This type of research is often referred to as researching your collateral lines. I will conduct this type of research for each generation. I will at least research one generation forward and one generation back for each family unit.
20. Search All Individuals Living in the Same Household
It will not be uncommon to find individuals living in the same household with different surnames (last names). As a practice, research all persons living in the household with the individual/family or in the home of siblings. There is usually an individual/family connection.
21.Look Beyond Names and Relationships
As you research the census, you need to see more than family names and relationships, usually found in the first few columns of the 1850-1940 censuses. Look at the other columns for events that you can research beyond the pages of the census. Look carefully for information in columns related to other events where sources and records exist that you can use to compare and analyses. Start by looking at the columns related to:
- Born: Age, birthplace, parents birthplace
- Custom events: Prison/convict questions lead to records
- Death: Head of household is missing, parent living with a child, widow status of a spouse, mortality schedule
- Education: Attended school (e.g., elementary to college)
- Immigration and naturalization
- Land: Real estate value and mortgage questions
- Marriage: Wife, if married within the year, marital status
- Military: Veteran, service in the specific conflict, widow or veteran schedules
- Occupation
22. When Questions Arise in the Census
When things are not clear, and you are having difficulty finding the individual/family in a census, expand the search by creating a picture of the community. Ask yourself the following questions:
- Who were the neighbors?
- Were there others with the same surname in the community?
- Compare family naming practices. Are there unique middle names that are related to surnames?
- Who was named in whose will?
- If the courthouse burned, maybe the newspaper didn’t
- Check the records of the county institutions, poor farm, orphanage, jail, prison and hospital
- Finding and reading local histories are always helpful
- Not all of these histories are academically correct, but they can provide clues about a community’s problems, its churches and politics
- Build a checklist for each generation by looking for records that include
o Census
o Military
o Military pension
o Vital records
o All forms of court records
o Land records
o Newspapers
23. Return to the Census When You Have More Experience
When I first started research the census, I eagerly went from census to census, coping down the names of the individual/families. I kept a log of the pages where I found them. A few years later, I had the opportunity to return to the same census for another search. I returned to the pages I had noted, and I was able to see connections and clues that I didn’t see the first time I was there. I had more experience and more information. From that experience, I went back to all the censuses I had previously.
24. Look Carefully Who is Living Next Door
In this census, the enumerators were given a map of the districts they were to cover. The households included in the census are primarily in the order they were visited, which gives us an excellent understanding of who the neighbors were.
- Because the census is organized in households visited, you can begin to build the circle of influence for the individual/families. Make it practice always to record at least six to ten families before and after the listing of the individual/family. Are they the same the individual/family? Members of the same congregation? Friends?
- Are the given names similar among the neighbors and the individual/family? Similar names run in families. This might be a clue that they are more than just neighbors.
- It has been my experience that neighbors, even when they don’t share the same name, are related. Look for the neighbors being the wife’s parents, sister of the husband, siblings of the wife, aunts and uncles and so forth.
- Often neighbors move with neighbors. If you can’t follow the individual/family or find them in the census, see if you can follow neighbors. When I couldn’t find the individual/families in a location, I have searched for the names of known neighbors to find the individual/family. Make sure you include the names of neighbors in the individual/family profile.
Understand Ages in the U.S. Census
25. Use the Census to Calculate the Birth Year of Individual
As you track the individual/family through the U.S. Federal Population Censuses, I have often used the age to help me
- Identify individual members of the individual/family
- Provide clues to confirm I have the right individual/family unit as you search each census
- Provide clues as to relationship in the individual/family
- Provide clues if I have the right female when surnames change through marriage
- Provide clues when people use nicknames and other name variations from one census to the next
- See the following article to help you calculate the birth year associated with the census,” Using the census to calculate the birth year of your Ancestor.”
26. Be Careful with Age the Census
The age/birth year provided on the census is not a primary source like a birth certificate or church record. It is one individual telling you the ages of the household. If I were to answer the census question today on the age of the individual/family, I would be close but not exact. I would start with how old my oldest daughter is and then subtract two years for each child. Now, if you were to ask my wife the same question, she would have no problem giving you the age of every member of the individual/family right down to the month. My point is simple: the census taker’s information varies from household to household, and it’s also about the quality of the census taker hearing and writing down what they heard correctly.
I have found it essential to use the census age information to calculate the range of possible birth dates and years of the people listed in the individual/family unit I am researching. I have prepared a birth year reference chart for each census to help you identify an estimated birth year for each individual/family. See below for links to various census charts.
27. Study the Ages of All Family Members in Each Census
Look at age gaps between children. Is the age cap normal? For example, every two years. Are the age gaps more significant than expected? This could be a clue that there was another child or spouse that had passed away. Look at the age of husband and wife. Are they about the same age? Is one spouse much older than the other? If yes, this could be a clue that there is a second marriage. Look at the ages of children and the place of birth. This might provide clues of where the parents were married or from where the individual/family migrated.
28. Search to See If Individual Served in the U.S. Military
The following are a few tips I have used to define if the individual/family might have served in the military during this time.
- List all the wars that existed during each individual/family’s lifetime and their age during the war. As a rule of thumb, the age range for soldiers during a war period is 16-60.
- Look for clues that might be found on gravestones, family papers, obituaries, biographies.
- Look where the individual/family lived. Does the individual/family live on what is referred to as the frontier (westernmost land) of the United States in the early 1800′? This might indicate that he received bounty lands.
- Search indexes for military land patents and other military records. If you don’t find the individual/family in one index, try another. It is not uncommon to have the individual/families who were veterans of multiple wars.
29. Searching Online Databases
When you realize that the spelling of the individual/family name can vary from census to census, there are times when your name search does not produce desired results. The following are few ideas to consider.
Try using a wildcard search. Most census databases will allow you to use these search techniques.
- Wildcard ? question mark. This is where you use the ? question mark to replace a letter. For example, if your name was Smith, you might also find it spelled Smyth. Conduct your search using the Sm?th. This will return names like Smith, Smyth, Smath, Smoth. The spelling of the name stays the same except for the letter represented by the ?. Please note you cannot put the ? in front of a word.
- Wildcard * Asterix. You can use the * to represent an unknown number of letters. I often will use the search for Scandinavian names. For example, if I searched John*, I would get returns of Johnson, Johnsen, Johns, Johnathon. Note you must have at least 3 letters before the *.
Try using the Soundex option if it’s available, which helps to identify alternative spellings. The Soundex is a coded surname (last name) index based on how a surname sounds rather than the way it is spelled. Surnames that sound the same, but are spelled differently, like SMITH and SMYTH, have the same code and are filed together.
30. Searching Census with Online/Database Search Engines
When searching for an individual/family in online census databases such as Ancestry.com, FamilySearch, and MyHeritage, I have found it valuable to use various search strategies to ensure I have thoroughly searched the census record.
- Geographically limit your search area
- Search on the last name only if rare (or with geographical limitations if more common)
- Search on the last name with identifiers (age range, sex, race, place of birth, occupation, etc.)
- Search on given name only with geographical limitations
- Search on given name only with identifiers and geographical limitations
- Search on another name in that household
- Search on another name that should be listed nearby in that census year
- Search on names with wildcards (rules for wildcard use and results returned vary)
- Search phonetically (via Soundex)
- If the individual/family lived in a rural area, read the census pages line by line
- Check the census pagination. Sometimes pages are missing or out of order
- Search the state census; families may have been missed when the federal census but be in the state census
31. Research the State Census
States conducted state censuses in off years in between the Federal census. Every state was in charge of whether and when they would conduct a census.
- States conducted state censuses in off years between the Federal census, such as in 1845, 1855, 1865. It varies by state.
- These censuses usually contain the same type of information as in the Federal and additional questions unique to that state.
- These censuses are located at the state archives and libraries, online transcripts of counties within a state from historical societies, and online databases such as Ancestry.com.
- The state census is a snapshot of the family and is valuable to construct, confirm, add, and delete information from the individual/family profile you are building. For example, I have found children that were born and died in between the federal census. Confirmed deaths of wives, husbands and grandparents.
- See the articles: “Availability of state census records post-1850” and “Availability of 1850-1940 U.S. Federal and state census records.”
32. Census Closest to Death Can Yield Many Records
Look for the last census naming the individual/family. You may find the individual/family living with children/grandchildren or visa versa. In the county of the census, search for death-related records. Each death-related record may have different types of information/clues to support and expand your research. Examples of death-related records include:
- Obituaries
- Cemetery records
- Wills
- Deeds
- Death certificates
- Insurance
- Funeral homes
33. Search Every Census During an Individual’s Life
Find the individual/family in every census taken during the time they lived. If I were researching my grandfather who lived from 1852 to 1922, I would begin my search in the following Federal Population census: 1860, 1870, 1880, 1890’s state census (note: 99% of the 1890 Federal census was destroyed by fire and flood, 1900, 1910, and 1920. Start with the most recent census and work backward. See the article,” Use the census records to track your Ancestors’ movement over time.” Also, see the John I. Stewart example 1850-1930. Start with the 1850 census or 1930 census.
34. Search Every Census Schedule
Understand every census has different information and that there are a variety of census schedules. These schedules include the well-known population schedule, but there are also mortality schedules, agricultural schedules, state censuses, etc. Search every census schedule for each individual. For example, If I were researching my grandfather, who lived from 1852 to 1922, I would begin by listing all of the census taken during his lifetime and then looking to see where I could search the census. In the case of my grandfather, the following are the schedules that were taken during are listed below. Will I search for each one? I will become familiar with the schedule and then decide if it applies to my grandfather and his family. Schedules taken include:
- 1856 Utah State Census
- 1860 Federal Population Schedule
- 1860 Agricultural Census Schedule
- 1860 Federal Mortality Schedule
- 1860 Industrial Schedule
- 1860 Slave Schedule
- 1860 Social Statistics Schedule
- 1870 Federal Population Schedule
- 1870 Agricultural Census Schedule
- 1870 Industrial Schedule
- 1870 Federal Mortality Schedule
- 1870 Social Statistics Schedule
- 1880 Federal Population Schedule
- 1880 Agricultural Census Schedule
- 1880 Federal Mortality Schedule
- 1880 Defective Schedules
- 1880 Manufacturing Schedule
- 1890 Federal Population Schedule (99% of schedule is lost to fire and flood)
- 1890 Veterans Schedule
- 1900 Federal Population Schedule
- 1900 Indian Schedule
- 1910 Federal Population Schedule
- 1920 Federal Population Schedule
35. Use 1860-1900 Migration Patterns to Find Records
Between 1860 and 1900, the Civil War is still very fresh in the minds and lives of Americans. Families are on the move. Don’t be surprised if you find the individual/family living in different locations with each census within the same county, state and region. Each place they lived will be a place to search for records. The following is the process I have used for using the individual/family migration patterns between 1860-1900 to research and find records.
- Chances are the individual/family moved. Even if the individual/family stayed in one place before, during and after the war, start with the premise that they moved after the Civil War every several years. I have frequently found families living between 1860-1900 to migrate from one place to the next.
- Chart the individual/family location 1860-1900. Find a regular map that you would use for travel. Mark on a map every place the individual lived between 1860, 1870, 1880 and 1900.
- 1890 census lost. Remember, the 1890 census was mostly lost to fire, and there will be a 20-year gap between 1880 and 1900 that you will not be able to account for the individual/family travels.
- Use state census records. Check to see if you can find the individual/family in the state census to help you build out the individual/family profile and chart location in between the federal census years. See the article, “Availability of 1850-1940 U.S. Federal and state census records.”
- Chart the migration path. Once you have outlined the places, the individual/families have lived on a modern-day map, draw a line that connects each point on the map so you can visually see their migration path.
- Consult time-period maps. Once you have marked the location of the individual/family’s on a modern-day map, search online to find time-period maps between 1860 and 1900. Look on these maps to see the various routes that existed between the points where the individual/family lived. Mark these routes on your modern-day map.
- Migration pattern. Your map now shows the migration pattern and potential routes the individual/family took between each location they lived.
- Migration search strategy. At this point, I would suggest that you identify all the critical record repositories along the migration path you have charted. Start by identifying each county along the migration route. Within each county, locate the courthouse, historical/genealogical societies, local and regional libraries, and college/university libraries and archives. This list of repositories is now your migration search strategy which you will systematically search for records of the individual/family.
- Search county by county along the migration route. Search the records of every county along the migration route. As I have tracked the individual/family’s through the census records, I have found them living several hundred miles from one census to the next. I am only able to account for them every ten years. It doesn’t tell me how long they lived in each location. The first time I created the migration search strategy and looked in every county along the migration route, I found records in 50% of the counties.
- 25-mile radius strategy. Another concept I have used to search for records is to draw a 25-mile radius from each location the individual/family’s lived and find all the record repositories in the circle. Once I have exhausted my research options, I extend the circle by five miles to find the next group of repositories to research.
