Detailed introduction to 1790-1940 U.S. Censuses research.
As a writer and researcher, you will quickly learn that U.S. Census records are a precious primary resource developed by the federal government. Over the last several years, I have immersed myself in researching the U.S. Census for individual and family profiles and writing narratives. I have created this article and other resources that reflect my knowledge and the results I have experienced. These resources were developed to help you get the most from the time you will spend researching U.S. Census records.
Table of Contents
The article is divided into the following sections:
- Introduction to 1790-1940 U.S. Censuses Resources
- Overview of U.S. Federal Census
- How to Use the U.S. Federal Census
- Researching the U.S. Federal Census
Introduction to 1790-1940 U.S. Censuses Resources
What educational resources are available for researching the U.S. Census?
Over the last several years, I have immersed myself in researching the U.S. Census for individual and family profiles and writing narratives. I have created resources that reflect the knowledge I have gained and the results I have experienced. The resources intend to help you get the most from the time you will spend researching U.S. Census records.
U.S. Census learning resources
Click on any of the following years, and you will be taken to that years’ census research guide:
Throughout the 1790 U.S. federal census tutorial, please find links to resources that I have specifically prepared to help you. In addition, I have written and assembled other resources to provide you a more in-depth understanding of the census research process. I have tried to cover every possible question and angle you are likely to face in your U.S. census research. I would encourage you to use the resources often. The resources include: [Return to Article TOC]
Overview of U.S. Federal Census
Entire books have been written about how to work with census data. And you can find answers to any question you have about a particular census with a Google search. The following are a few notes to help give the big picture about using and working with census data.
What is a census?
A census is a government-sponsored enumeration of the population in a particular area. It contains a variety of information—names, heads of household (or all household members), ages, citizenship status, ethnic background, and so on.
Large groups of census enumerators counted the United States’ population every ten years beginning in 1790 because our government is based on equitable representation in our legislative branch. Enumerators visited each family in their districts and asked a set of specific questions. Those questions and the format they are recorded varied throughout United States history, moving from just a tally by age, sex, and race, how many people lived in a household, too much more detailed information in recent times.
Below, I’ve discussed some different types of census records you are likely to come across in your research.
What is the U.S. Federal Census: Population Schedule?
The U.S. Censuses provide you with building blocks of your research, allowing you to confirm the information and learn more. Since 1790, census “population schedules” are compiled every decade, detailed records of the federal government’s decennial survey of American households. The federal government uses information from the schedules for timely demographic analysis. The schedules themselves, of interest primarily to writers, historians, and genealogists, contain the personal information of the survey respondents. To protect the privacy of the people whose names appear in each schedule, census records are restricted for seventy-two years after the census is taken, not available to researchers during that time.
What will you find in the Federal Census—Population Schedules?
The earliest census records contain information on people born well before the American Revolution. In contrast, the 1940 schedules—the most recent ones open to public inspection—contain information on many people who are still living. Using these records, a researcher might conceivably trace a family line from a living person down to an individual born more than 250 years ago.
1790-1840 Census
From 1790-1840, only the head of household is listed, along with the number of household members in selected age groups. Beginning in 1850, the name of every household member was recorded, along with their age, color, occupation, and place of birth. As other censuses were taken, additional questions were added.
1850 Census
From the 1850 census on, the names, ages, occupations, and birthplaces (country or state only) of each household member were included.
1870 Census
The 1870 census gave, in addition to previous information, the month of birth if born during the year, the month of marriage if married within the year, and whether the father or mother of each individual was foreign-born.
1880 Census
The 1880 census (and later censuses) added two valuable pieces of information: the relationship of each person to the head of the household and the birthplace of the father and mother of each person.
1885 Census
The 1885 census was a special census, with population and mortality schedules conducted by the federal government to help five states or territories—Colorado, Florida, Nebraska, New Mexico, and Dakota Territory.
1890 Census
The 1890 census was largely destroyed by fire in 1921, and only fragments of it are available.
1900-1910 Census
1900 and 1910 censuses ask the questions on the 1880 census, but also include the age of each individual, how many years he had been married, his year of immigration, and his citizenship status. The 1900 census also gives the month and year of birth. For mothers, it lists the number of children born and surviving. The 1910 census identifies Civil War veterans.
1920 Census
The 1920 census includes the same information as was found on the 1910 census. It gives ages but not the month and year of birth. It also lists the year of naturalization, the only census to do so.
1930 Census
The 1930 census asks questions on the 1920 census and asks for marital status and, if married, age at first marriage. If the individual was an American Indian, it asks whether they are full-blooded or mixed blood and tribal affiliation.
1940 Census
The 1940 census included several standard questions: name, age, gender, race, education, and place of birth. But the census also introduced some new questions. The instructions ask the enumerator to enter a circled x after the person furnishes the information about the family. It also asked whether the person worked for the CCC, WPA, or NYA the week of March 24-30, 1940, and asked for their income for the twelve months ending December 31, 1939. The 1940 census also has a supplemental schedule for two names on each page. The supplemental schedule asks the place of birth of the person’s father and mother; the person’s usual occupation, not just what they were doing the week of March 24-30, 1940; and for all women who are or have been married, whether this woman had been married more than once and age at first marriage.
1950 Census
According to the “72-Year Rule,” the National Archives releases census records to the general public 72 years after Census Day. As a result, the 1930 census records were released April 1, 2002, and the 1940 records were released April 2, 2012. The 1950 census records will be released in April 2022.
Are there other census schedules available?
Be aware that in addition to population schedules, there were other schedules taken usually at the same time. There are online and print resources that provide more detail on these schedules and use them in research. These other schedules include the following:
- Mortality Schedule. Conducted from 1850 to 1885, provides information about persons who died during the twelve months before the census.
- Veterans Schedule. Conducted in 1840 and 1890, provides information about Union veterans and their widows.
- Slaves Schedule. Conducted in 1850 and 1860, shows slave owners and the number of slaves they owned. Slave schedules play a significant role in identifying the person who owned the slaves.
- Agricultural Schedule. Conducted from 1850 to 1880, provides data on farms and the names of the farmers.
- Manufacturing Schedule. Conducted in 1810 (fragments only), 1820, and 1850-1880, provides information on businesses and industries.
- Defective, Dependent, and Delinquent Schedule. Conducted in 1880, focuses on handicapped, paupers, or criminals.
- Indian Schedules. Conducted in 1910. Indian schedules are found at the end of the regular population schedules for each county. The Indian schedules are similar to regular population schedules but have some slightly different questions. They are not to be confused with the Indian census rolls.
- Institutions Schedule. Usually follows the county population schedules and include jails, hospitals, poor houses, or asylums.
- Merchant Seamen Schedule. Conducted on United States flag merchant vessels in 1930.
- Military and Naval Forces Schedule. Conducted from 1900 to 1930 on forts, bases, and Navy ships usually found after the population schedule.
- Social Statistics Schedule. Conducted from 1850 to 1870, includes information about real estate, annual taxes, cemeteries, school statistics, libraries, newspapers, and churches.
Where will you find and access the census?
You will be able to find the majority of census records online. There are several online resources for finding the United States Federal Census, including the following:
| Free | Requires Subscription | |||
| 1790 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index/Images) |
Ancestry.com (Index/Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index/Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index/Images) |
| 1800 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1810 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1820 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1830 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1840 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1850 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1860 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1870 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1880 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1890 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1900 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1910 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1920 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1930 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index and Images) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
| 1940 U.S. Census |
FamilySearch (Index and Images) |
Ancestry.com (Index and Images) |
FindMyPast.com (Index and Images) |
MyHeritage.com (Index and Images) |
Note: If you don’t have access to a computer or the census search engines, you will need access to copies of the census records. The National Archives in Washington, DC publishes copies of census records on rolls of microfilm. (Microfilm is a long strip of photographic material containing reduced images of printed material. It would help if you used microfilm on a specially designed microfilm reader or viewer, which enlarges the images.)
The National Archives publishes catalogs of its holdings on different subjects, census records being one of the most popular. The National Archives has copies of census microfilm for all available places and years. Regional branches of the National Archives also have extensive selections of census microfilm.
Libraries and archives with genealogical collections have census microfilm for selected places and years, mainly those of primary interest to their patrons. Libraries and archives generally have a brochure describing their collections, including census microfilm. You can locate archives and libraries with significant genealogical and historical holdings in a directory published by the Association for State and Local History, available in most libraries.
Do other censuses exist that are not conducted by the U.S. Government?
Below is an outline of other censuses and enumeration schedules that may be helpful in your research.
State censuses
In addition to the decennial censuses of the federal government, many states also produced their censuses in the intervening years. State census records vary significantly from state to state based on the code required and when the state thought it was essential to enumerate its citizens. The state and local enumerations can fill in gaps for when the federal census does not exist and when you “just know” the people were in a particular area, but the federal census records don’t show them. Many researchers have used state and local enumerations to fill in for the 1890 Federal census.
Local enumerations
Many cities, towns, and counties conducted special censuses. These local enumerations are found under such titles as school censuses, sheriff’s censuses, and various ethnic censuses.
How to Use the U.S. Federal Census
I find the census to be a fascinating look into the past. It allows me to see a snippet when the person/individuals I am researching provides answers to a series of questions.
How do I use the U.S. Federal Census for individual and family research?
Do not underestimate the power of researching census. Aside from the information in the census, I have used the information to find thousands of documents, writings, images, artifacts, and people to interview. I have created detailed research guides for each of the United States Federal Census. I will share
- What you will find in each census
- How to research the census
- How to substantially cut your learning and be productive in your research
- How to use the information to find more information
Use the census information to
- Track individual and family movement over time
- Find names and rough birth years
- Determine relationships
- Learn birthplaces
- Find clues to the previous generation (such as their birthplace)
- Learn street addresses
- Learn whether individuals were slaves or slave owners
- Learn occupations
- Learn another country of birth
- Learn of other children who likely died young
- Learn year of immigration or naturalization
- Note naming patterns in your family
- Find clues to your family’s economic status
- Find some clues to education
- Find some clues to military service
- Find some clues to medical conditions
- Narrow year and place of marriage
- Learn about employment status
- Learn about exceptional circumstances (such as convicts and homeless children)
- Learn native tongue
- Narrow death dates
- Identify other potential branches of your family living nearby
As a writer and historian, I can use United States Federal Census information to
- Create accurate individual and family profiles
- Begin to outline topics I want to cover in the story
- Provides me an outline of what and where to search
- Substantially reduce my time for background research
- Provide me direction on where to look for records (e.g., birth, death)
- Find living relations I can interview for individual and family stories
- Find artifacts such as photos, letters/cards, personal belongings
- Learn about the community/places lived
- See the individual and family story from the point of view of the period
- Find record repositories such as city/county offices, libraries, and historical societies
- Separate fact from fiction
- Find individual, family, local, and state histories and historians to consult and collaborate with
- And much more.
Researching the U.S. Federal Census
The U.S. Federal censuses have provided rich information about the individuals and Family narratives that I have written. I have had a chance to research all of the censuses from 1940-1790. It took me many hours to learn how to effectively research and use the information contained in the pages. I want to share a few of the lessons I have learned.
As I have researched the United States Federal censuses to support and provide background information on individual and family narratives that I have written, there are few limitations that I have found. They include
What are the limitations of the U.S. Federal Censuses?
The following are a few of the typical limitations I have found in the U.S. Federal Censuses.
Other records need to be used in addition to census data
Because federal census enumeration was not done until 1790, a significant gap is open in American History, and other records must be used for the colonial period. Early census records give far less information than those taken in 1850 and later. Many families were missed entirely, and some were listed twice during enumeration because of the length of time needed to take a complete census combined with the mobility of American families.
Early Census data took 6 to 9 months to gather
Early censuses took 9 months to complete. In 1850 the time was reduced to 6 months, and in 1870 it was further reduced to one month.
Multiple families lived in dwellings
Many families that lived in dwelling units were missed because the census taker did not know that a large house had more than one family.
Some census schedules are missing
Schedules for specific census years are entirely missing for some counties or even entire states.
Census enumerators followed instructions, sometimes
Many enumerators were not well qualified and did not follow instructions. Unfamiliar abbreviations and ditto marks (i.e., Conn., Ct., Cn., Cnct. were all used for Connecticut, and I’ve seen IA for Indiana).
Paper and ink were of poor quality
Poor quality paper and ink were used, making it challenging to read microfilm copies (due to poor photography, double papers or pages filmed, making writing too small, etc.). Filmers missed pages by accidentally turning two pages.
Families gave enumerators wrong information
Incorrect data was given to enumerators by family members. Anyone who has researched multiple census schedules for a particular family can tell you of the inconsistencies in ages, places of birth and other essential data. It is often hard to tell whether the errors were intentional or not and who made the errors.
Only information for the census year was recorded
Even though the census page you are researching was taken on a specific date, only the information for the census year was to be included. If a child were born on Aug. 2nd, just before the census taker took the information, he would not be listed in the enumeration if the census date was June 1st. The census dates for different years are as follows: 1790 – 1820 first Monday in August; 1830 – 1900 June 1st; 1910 April 15th; 1920 January 1st; 1930 – present April 1st.
What kind of clues can be gathered from the U.S. Federal Censuses?
They are a few of the more common clues that have been important to my individual and family background research.
Nearby families
Always take note of the families nearby (census takers usually took the houses in the order they were situated) and take note of any families housing one person of your surname of interest. The data you transcribe in doing this will very often reap the rewards of family connections later down the line. Please note the places of birth of your family and the other families in the area with the same origins, whether it be the same state or the same country.
Families seldom moved alone from one area to another; they moved in groups related by blood, marriage, religion, ethnic origins, and social cliques. Tracking people across the country through time in the census records can be easier than tracking a single-family.
When abstracting a census record on your family, don’t just copy the record for one family. Write down complete abstracts of several families who lived nearest yours. Note the last names of the families within several pages of yours in the records. Study the birthplaces listed, and if it appears your family moved from one state to another, look for other families in the neighborhood whose family members have similar birthplace patterns.
Places of birth
The places of birth of all the children can tell a story of family movement. Judging from the length of time they lived in a particular area (perhaps three children were born in Vermont over 10 years), one can determine whether or not a search for a deed or other documents in that area would be worthwhile.
The census returns show the birthplace of an individual and the birthplace of the individual’s parents. Much circumstantial evidence is present to the family structure. If it shows the mother of the household’s place of birth as Georgia but the place of the birth of some or all of the children’s mother as Massachusetts, one can start making other assumptions as to how many wives the husband had and which children, if not all, might be from another marriage.
Family education
The family’s education can be determined from the number in the family who can read and write and if the children did or did not attend school.
Property value
The property’s value and other monetary facts might give you a clue as to whether a will or other estate papers might be found. It could also help determine whether they might be mentioned in local History.
Presence of an older person
The presence of an older adult in the household of the same surname might indicate a parent, aunt or uncle of the husband. If the surname is different, it might be a mother or father-in-law and watch out for the remarriages of this newly found grandma before jumping to the conclusion that you have discovered a maiden name for the wife.
What are the common dos and don’ts of researching the U.S. Federal Census?
I don’t research the U.S. Federal Census every day. It’s more like two or three times a quarter. I have a running list of dos and don’ts that I have kept to remind me of what I have learned. I will quickly read these just before I start a project.
- Do copy the information at the top of the page in the header.
- Do not assume census indexes are correct or complete.
- Do not assume spellings areas you think.
- Do not assume relationships are exactly as stated.
- Do not assume a wife is the mother of all or any of the listed children.
- Do not assume the ages listed are correct.
- Don’t forget to copy all of the entries for the surname in the county. And better look over the neighbors too! Four Smiths in a row with a Jones in between could mean Jones is married to a daughter.
- Don’t think the records before 1850 can’t help. They may only have one name listed, but at least you’ll know how many to look for in a Family.
- Do believe that all census records are essential — even the earlier ones.
- Do make use of the veteran’s column in the 1840 census.
- Do use the 1890 veterans (and widows of veterans) schedules.
- Do use the state census records.
- Do not believe all census data to be accurate and correct.
- Do study the enumerator’s handwriting so you can make comparisons.
- Do watch for families split across two pages with the surname not repeated at the top of the next page.
- Do try to find your Ancestors in every census taken in their lifetime.
- Do check Family histories and other sources of neighbors who might have come from the same state to locate a town of residence if you cannot determine that information on your Ancestor.
- Remember that when searching an entire town for an Ancestor, the town enumeration may be split and not be kept together on the film — cities are often listed separately from the town they are connected with.
- Do note real estate and personal property values to determine if a deed or will search is appropriate.
- Do use maps in conjunction with your census searching.
- Do search across the state, county, and town lines if your Ancestors lived near a border.
- Go back and look again at census records to see what you might have missed — especially if you have learned of new surnames (maiden names) or other Family connections.
- Do consider typographical errors when using indexes — know the keyboard and what letters could have been punched in by mistake.
- Don’t think census information gives all the answers.
- Don’t forget the 1900 veterans census if your Ancestor was in the military. Widows are also listed.
- Don’t forget about state census records.
- Be careful – “IA” on some census means Indiana and not Iowa.
