Use the 1800 U.S. Census Research Guide for detailed ancestry research.
This is an essential guide for researching the 1800 U.S. Census. The 1800 U.S. Census is a list of questions asked to the U.S. Federal Population in 1800. The census captures the moment in time for each person recorded in the 1800 Census.
Use this guide to learn about and discover the stories of the people who lived during and before the 1800s. With the 1800 U.S. census information, you can, for starters, build individual and family profiles, write narratives, build family trees and find related records to research.
Table of Contents for 1800 U.S. Census Guide
The Essential 1800 U.S. Census Research Guide contains the following sections:
- Additional 1790-1950 U.S. Federal Census Resources
- Details about the 1800 U.S. Census
- How to Search and Use the 1800 U.S. Census Data
- How 1800 U.S. Census Can Lead to Military Records
- Use the 1800 U.S. Census to Calculate the Birth Year
- What is the 1800 U.S. Federal Census?
- What Can You Find in U.S. Census
- Questions Asked in the 1800 U.S. Census
- Author B. Schreiber’s Introduction to the U.S. Census
Note: All images in this guide reflect life from the 1800s.
Why use the Essential 1800 U.S. Census Research Guide for Beginners
This guide is based on 1,000s of hours of my first-hand experience in researching the U.S. Censuses for purposes related to writing individuals and family narratives, family history, and genealogy. Writers, family historians, and genealogists can, for example, use this comprehensive research guide to:
- Learn 100’s of census research tips and tricks
- Correctly connect related individuals and family
- Complete and extend ancestral family trees
- Recognize, decipher and use clues from census data
- Build and expand individual family profiles
- Learn about and find other historical records
- Conduct exhaustive background research for writing narratives
- Write compelling individual and family narratives
- Find local, regional, state and national record repositories
Why the Essential 1800 U.S. Census Research Guide for Beginners was written
I’m Author B. Schreiber, a professional writer and blogger. I first started researching the U.S. Censuses to gain background information for stories and narratives I was writing about individuals and families I was related to.
Researching the U.S. Censuses can be complex and overwhelming
I spend hundreds of hours learning about each census and how to solve my research problems. This 1800 U.S. Census Research Guide is a compilation of what I learned and continue to apply. I am sharing this information because I understand how frustrating U.S. Census research can be. Perhaps this knowledge can help you. See the section: Author B. Schreiber’s Introduction to the U.S. Census.
Additional 1790-1950 U.S. Federal Census Resources
Essential censuses research guides
Click on any of the following years, and you will be taken to that years’ essential census research guide:
Census and historical record research articles
Throughout this U.S. federal census guide, please find links to resources that I have specifically prepared to help you. In addition, I have written and assembled other resources to provide you with a more in-depth understanding of the census research process. I have tried to cover every possible question and angle you are likely to face in your U.S. census research. I would encourage you to use the resources often. The resources include:
- 35 Important U.S. Census Research Tips and Tricks
- Pre-1850 U.S. Census Research Tips for Historians
- Where to find 1850-1940 Censuses Research Clues
- Introduction to 1790-1940 U.S. Censuses Ancestry Research
- How to Use Naming Patterns in Ancestry Research
- 5 Step Ancestry Research Process for Historians
- How to Cite and Verify Ancestry Research
- How to Conduct Detailed Exhaustive Historical Research
- Introduction to Ancestry Research and Historical Records
- 15 Strategies to Find Ancestor Names in Historical Records
- Keep Ancestry Research Focused with These 28 Simple Tips
(Video) Introduction to 1800 U.S. Census Historical Research. The “Introduction to 1800 U.S. Census Historical Research” provides a quick overview of the 1800 U.S. Census and how you can make the most from the 1800 U.S. Census for individual and family historical and narrative research.
For additional videos, see the BeginMyStory YouTube Channel.
Where to find the 1800 U.S. Census online
The following are some standard resources I have consulted:
Details about the 1800 U.S. Census
The following are a few of the details that are important to understand about the 1800 U.S. Federal census:
Number of persons included in the 1800 U.S. Census: 5,308,483 people lived in the United States, of whom 893,602 were slaves.
1800 U.S. Census day: August 4, 1800
1800 U.S. Census duration: 9 months
1800 U.S. Census geography:
- States and territories enumerated: 16 states and three territories were included in the census.
- New states: The newest states included the in 1800 U.S. Census were Kentucky, Tennessee, District of Columbia
- Territories included: Territory northwest of the Ohio River, Indiana and Mississippi Territory
- The available states include: Connecticut, District of Columbia, Maine (inc. part of Massachusetts), Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont
- The missing states: Delaware, Georgia, New Jersey, Tennessee, Virginia
- Efforts to reproduce missing states: There are ongoing efforts to reproduce the 1800 U.S. Census for the missing states by using local county records such as tax lists, oaths of allegiance, land entities, militia lists, petitions, road records, and other sources. These types of records are also known as census substitutes.
A few interesting facts about the 1800 U.S. Census include:
Maryland included D.C
At the time of the 1800 U.S. Census, the area that became the District of Columbia was being managed/administered by Maryland and Virginia. Maryland included the included within its returns the area under its control. The population of the District of Columbia under its control included 8, 1444 (i.e., 5672 whites, 400 free blacks, 2,472 slaves.) The Virginia records are lost.
No preprinted forms
1790-1820 censuses did not have preprinted forms for the census takers to record information. Each census taker was given sample copies and expected to copy his census return on whatever paper he could find and post it in two public places.
Public hearing
1790-1840 censuses were public, meaning they were posted publicly so those included on the census could read, view and catch omissions and errors.
Age brackets
Age brackets are split into five groups, only the number of slaves is recorded, and Indians that were not taxed were included.
Territory of Louisiana
The Territory of Louisiana is purchased from France for a cost of 15 million dollars in 1803. The purchase includes all of present-day Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and part of the states of Colorado, Louisiana, Minnesota, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming.
How to Search and Use the 1800 U.S. Census Data
Learn how to search and use the data found in the 1800 U.S. Census. Too often, I have seen researchers overlooking the value of the 1800 U.S. Census because they believe the limited information cannot be effectively used. Yes, information is limited; however, in this section of the Essential 1800 U.S. Census Research Guide for Beginners, you are provided a review of research insights, tips and tricks, and must-know information to aid your research.
Table of Contents for 1800 U.S. Census Insights
The following is a list of the 1800 U.S. Census research insights. Each category provides research insights.
- Build A Family Profile
- Build A Case for Your Family Tree
- Head of Household Only Name Given
- How to Find Names of Women
- When A Woman Is Listed As Head of Household
- Age and Family Composition
- Researching Slaves
- Other Records Created During the 1800s
Each of the following categories will provide you with some essential research insights, tips and tricks, and more for the 1800 U.S. Census.
Build A Family Profile
I make it practice to start with the information I already know or suspect about the family. I refer to this as my family profile. The more you know, the more options you have of correctly identifying and connecting the family from one generation to the next. The information I like to include in my profile include:
- Names of known and suspect family members
- Relationships of known and suspect family members
o Father (i.e., fathers, step-fathers)
o Mother (i.e., mothers, step-mothers)
o Children (i.e., brothers, sisters, step-children, adoptions)
o Brothers’/sisters’ –in-law and their spouses (i.e., persons married to grown children of the family)
o Grandparents (i.e., fathers’ side, mothers’ side, step-parent’s side)
o Siblings of parents and their families (i.e., fathers’ side, mothers’ side, step-parent’s side and the members of their households)
o Neighbors (i.e., names, surnames and family members)
o Group (i.e., this could be members of the organization, church, etc.)
o Borders (i.e., persons living in the household but not family members)
o Servants/slaves (i.e., persons who are identified as servants/slaves) - List of surname and variations
- Locations of where known and suspect family members (i.e., towns, regions, states)
- Locations of known and variations of the family surname (i.e., towns, regions, states)
- List of documents I already have organized in a timeline format
I realize this might be hard for the 1800 U.S. Census, but it is possible to include names that you have found on documents such as wills, court documents, church records and so forth. Having an idea of counts can give you ideas for sorting out the number tallies given in the free male, free female, free others, and slave columns.
Having a portion of the above-listed data will give you critical data that you can use when searching online databases, microfilm and other resources.
Build A Case for Your Family Tree
The most important counsel I can give when using the 1790-1840 censuses is not to make any assumptions based on the data you find, such as how big the family is by age and sex. Use the information you find to build a case and then 
use other records to confirm and disprove what think is being presented about the family. Never run with your assumptions until they can be proved. I spent several years searching out someone else’s family unit that was not confirmed from the census data on 1790-the 1820s. Of course, it was my fault that I didn’t confirm the data before I started extending the research. Remember the data is based on all persons located in the home. For example,
Please don’t assume that the head of the household is the oldest male, although it usually is.
Don’t assume, the oldest female is the wife of the head of the household. It could be a friend, neighbor, widowed sister or grandmother. It could even be a male who lost his wife, and the females are his children.
Don’t assume that the head of the household is the first and only spouse. Are there different age groups for children? This could mean the man married a younger wife and had children, married another woman and merged two-family units, or even could be the male is taken care of deceased relative’s family.
Don’t assume that all the children in the home belong to the head of the household. The children could be his siblings who are now living with him after the death of his parents or children of a brother or sister. The children could be friends who are away and happen to be in their home when the census was taken.
Head of Household Only Name Given
The head of household is the only name given. All household persons (including head of household) are listed under the age and group categories as total numbers for each category.
Search other records
Use the name of the head of household to search other records in the given location, such as wills/probate records, court records, church records, land records, tax records.
The oldest person may not be the head of the household
The oldest person listed in the age groups may not have been the head of the household. The individual could have been a parent or grandparent.
Identifying the correct family group
You can use the head of household and the age groupings numbers to identify the correct family group records and sort out records that might belong to the head of household with the same name. Caution; don’t discount a record that does not match up precisely to the head of household and category numbers. The listings included all persons in the home, such as family, friends, neighbors, boarders, and visitors.
Information about women
Finding information about the woman will be problematic if the man is still alive.
Junior and senior
During the 1800’s “Junior” (abbreviated as Junr. Jun, Jr) and “Senior” (abbreviated as Senr. Sen., Sr.) were used as nicknames when two men in the community had the same name. Yes, John Jones Jr. could have been the son of John Jones Sr. or a John Jones, but I have learned it takes a little more confirmation with additional records before I link. Consider this; the older John Jones could have been a sibling, half-brother, cousin, uncle, or unrelated.
Head of household with the same name
When you have heads of household with the same name, it can be confusing to know which one is your family. To help sort out which one is the right individual, you will need to know when the person was born and then compare ages through the various censuses.
Phonetically spelled
Most census takers wrote the names of individuals (i.e., first and last) phonetically, meaning as they sounded. As you search for an individual among the different census and records created during their lifetime, be prepared to see their name written differently in each record. Make sure to record the variations in your profile. Also, consider a situation where an individual or the census taker was foreign. A German named Braun could have had it spelled Brown, Broune, Browne, or Brawn.
Other categories
Number of “other” free persons is a category that refers to nonwhite racial/ethnic groups. Heads of households are named in this category.
How to Find Names of Women
There are few sources where you can search for women during this period. The following are a few lessons I have learned:
Head of the household
Search the 1800-1840 censuses to see if she is named as head of household.
Military pensions
Search for military pension records from the Revolutionary War (1775-1783) and future Wars such as the War of 1812 (1812-1815), Mexican-American War (1846-1848), U.S. Civil War (1861-1865). Remember 
that males under the age of 40 have an excellent chance of being in the military now and in the future. Widows of soldiers have been eligible to receive the pensions of their husbands from the Revolutionary War forward. Women could not join the military until 1890 as a nurse so you will not find wills based on their service until after this date.
Search for wills
Searching for wills by a woman can be hit and miss. If a woman died after her husband and remarried, the changes are there is no will because all she owned when to her new husband. However, If she was single when she died, there might be a will.
Church records
Search to see if church records exist for the community in this period. Usually, if you find them, start by looking for the person listed as head of household in categories of marriage, the christening of children, baptism of children, death of family members, etc. You may be able to find the wife’s maiden name if the witnesses are named in the marriage. If you find a first name for the wife, search all the first names in the church records to give you suspect families where she may have been a child.
Related heads of household
If you can find the names of children associated with the male head of household, look for other heads of household in the area with the same first name. Remember that children were usually given the name of their parents. Also, look at the middle names of male children. The mother’s maiden name was often preserved in the middle name.
Bible records
If you are fortunate, you may be able to find bible records. For example, the Library of Virginia has an extensive collection of bibles from the 17-1800’s. I was able to locate a family bible that had been preserved this way.
When Woman Is Listed As Head of Household
Finding a woman as a head of household 1790 to 1800 U.S. census usually means she is a widow or the eldest daughter of deceased parents. She may also be the head of household when the male is elderly or infirm (not physically or mentally strong.)
Surname
Use the surname of the woman to search for wills where she is named.
Remarriage
It was common when a woman remarried after the death of her husband; during this period that all she owned went to her new husband. This includes the land.
Pension records
Look for pension records from the Revolutionary war. Widows of soldiers have been eligible to receive the pensions of their husbands from the Revolutionary War forward. Women could not join the military until 1890 as a nurse so you will not find wills based on their service until after this date.
Age and Family Composition
In the 1800 US Population Census, learn the approximate corresponding birth years associated with the age groupings provided.
Order
The first family would have been recorded on August 4, 1800, and the last family on May 4, 1801. The age groupings were for “For Free White Males and Females.”
Age brackets
Age brackets were divided into five categories, and there were columns for all other free persons and slaves to be counted.
Do not assume
Do not assume that 45+ female is married to the 45+ male, the children on home belong to the family, or the children belong to either the mother or head of household.
Slaves
Slaves were to be counted as 3/5th of person. We are not sure that the number in the slave’s category is actual slaves or the addition of 3/5th for each slave.
Free white males and females
Because we are given more age groups for Free White Males and Free White Females, it is easier for us to identify the exact person when we have presented names through other documents or later censuses. We can also make a little more sense of the 1790 census with the numbers presented in the limited age categories.
Category tabulation
Numbers shown in the categories include all persons in the home, such as family, relatives, friends, employees, visitors, and boarders.
Search other records
When you combine the age category with other records such as probate inventories and tax lists, you may be able to determine the names of the family and their birth order.
No children were recorded after August 4, 1800
When the census taker came, he was to record who was in the house as of August 4, 1800. If a child was born after this date, they were not to be counted. If a person died before this date, they were not to be counted. It is very probable the census taker just recorded who was there the day he arrived.
Ballpark
The age range provided in the categories only gives us a “ballpark” number. The ballpark figure helps track the head of household from one census to the next, especially if the name remains the same. We can also use the figure to help estimate the family composition that needs to be confirmed with other records (e.g., church, wills/probate, land).
Oldest person
The oldest person listed in the age groups may not have been the head of the household. The individual could have been a parent or grandparent.
Family scenarios
You can use the age category to develop family scenarios about individuals who have died. For example, as you move forward in the census, you may find the age of a spouse to be much older or younger, such as when a wife is too young for some of the children being listed. You may find young children listed in one census and gone in the next census, which could mean that the child is dead or living somewhere else during the census. The death of a male can give clues to search for a will/probate record. If a female in an age bracket is missing, she could have died or married.
Strategy
When you move backward from one census to the next such as 1800 to the 1810 census, you can subtract 10 years. When you find the family, you will be able to use the age groupings to estimate family composition and help distinguish between families of the same name. The same is true when moving forward in the census from 1800 to 1790. Suppose the families don’t match up exactly; it’s ok. Remember that the census recorded all in the home and did not denote family, friends, boarders, and so forth.
Age gaps
When you find age gaps in children, it could hint at several issues such as the child could have died (Note: Search to see if death, church or cemetery records exist), there could be a second marriage or merged family families (Note: search for marriage records where the family lived at the time.)
Age ranges
When you find the same or similar age ranges by male and female for all or partial family members, you have a much better chance of being focused on the right group.
Researching Slaves
The slave category should not be overlooked.
Age groupings
Slaves appear in the age groupings by the name of the owner.
Find clues about an individual’s financial standing in the community
If the family had slaves, they could signify that they had more wealth than others. The more slaves a family-owned, the wealthier they were.
Estate and tax records
The slave category can also provide clues that other records exist, such as estate, property, and tax. These records may include the name and age of the slaves.
Other Records Created During the 1800s
One of the most critical questions I have asked in my research is what records were created by individuals living in the area/location at the time an individual lived here? The answer to the question provides me a list of resources that I will systematically search to confirm, disregards, and expand the data I find in the census. An excellent place to begin to find the records is to reach out to the historical/genealogical society for the state and county and ask for their guidance on the records available. Make sure you ask if the records have been digitized and can be found online or other means of accessibility in not digital.
For example, one of the more common census substitutes for the 1800 U.S. Census is tax lists. I have commonly found the tax lists to include all males over the age of 21 with information like whether they owned land, slaves, and other property. If I were looking for tax lists from Virginia online, I would construct a Google search query on Genealogy Virginia Tax Lists; Goochland County Virginia Tax Lists, and Goochland County Historical Society.
How 1800 U.S. Census Can Lead to Military Records
Search for military records from the Revolutionary War and War of 1812 for the head of household. Even though no information in the 1800 U.S. Census identifies the man as being in the war, it is still worth your time to look. Search for pension applications and records of pension payments for veterans, their widows, and other heirs. The pension applications usually provide the most information. They can include supporting documents such as marriage, birth, and death records/certificates, pages from family Bibles, family letters, dispositions of witnesses, affidavits, discharge papers and other supporting documents. Even if your ancestor did not receive a pension, see if his pension request was denied.
Bounty land applications also are related to wartime service
The federal government provided bounty land for those who served in the Revolutionary War (1775-1783), the War of 1812 (1812-1815), the Mexican-American War (1846-1848), and Indian wars between 1775 and 1855. Bounty lands were offered as an incentive to serve and as a reward for service. Veterans or their heirs claimed bounty land. The fed¬eral government reserved tracts of land for this purpose. New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia also set aside tracts of bounty land for their Revolutionary War veterans.
Search for these military records:
Revolutionary War 1776-1783
Look for military records of men serving in the Revolutionary War between the ages of 20 and 40+ in the 1800 U.S. Census. These men would have been born before 1770.
War of 1812 (1812-1814)
Look for military records of men serving in the War of 1812 between the ages of 0 and 40+ in the 1800 U.S. Census. These men would have been born before 1799.
Early Indian Wars 1815-1858
Look for military records of men serving in the Early Indian Wars between the ages of 0 and 40 in the 1800 U.S. Census. These men would have been born before 1835.
Researching military headstones
Military headstones have evolved through time. See the following articles for details: Meaning of Each Religious Emblem of Belief for U.S. Military Headstones
(Video) Introduction to U.S. Military Headstones. An introduction to U.S. military headstones provides an understanding of the design, history, symbolism, and individual and family research.
Use the 1800 U.S. Census to Calculate the Birth Year
In the 1800 US Population Census, learn the approximate corresponding birth years associated with the age groupings provided. This census allowed 9 months to be completed. The first family would have been recorded on August 4, 1800, and the last family on May 4, 1801. The age groupings were for “For Free White Males and Females.” There are columns for all other free persons and slaves to be counted. Numbers shown in the age categories include all persons in the home, such as family, relatives, friends, employees, visitors, and boarders.
Note: No matter when the census taker came, he was to record who was in the house as of August 4, 1800. If a child was born after this date, they were not to be counted. If a person died before this date, they were not to be counted. It is very probable the census taker just recorded who was there the day he arrived. For more information, see the following article: How to Use the Census to Calculate the Birth Year
Age calculated as of August 4, 1800, and does not allow for the 9-month variance.
| 1800 U.S. Census Birth Year Reference Chart | |
| Age Category | Born Between Years |
| 10 & under (0-9) | 1800-1790 |
| 10 & under 16 (10-15) | 1790-1785 |
| 16 & under 25 (16-18) | 1784-1775 |
| 26 & under 45 (26-44) | 1774-1756 |
| 45 & up (45+) | 1755 and Before |
What is the 1800 U.S. Federal Census?
A census is a government-sponsored enumeration of the population in a particular area. It contains a variety of information — names, heads of household (or all household members), ages, citizenship status, ethnic background, and so on. Here are some different types of census records you are likely to come across in your research.
U.S. federal census is also called a population schedule. Federal census records provide the building blocks of your research, allowing you to confirm the information and learn more. Compiled in the United States for every decade since 1790, census population schedules are comprehensive, detailed records of the federal government’s decennial survey of American households. The federal government uses information from the schedules for demographic analysis.
The schedules themselves, of interest primarily to genealogists, contain the personal information of the survey respondents. To protect the people’s privacy whose names appear in each schedule, census records are restricted for 72 years after the census is taken and are not available to researchers during that time.
What Can You Find in U.S. Census
Use the 1800 U.S. Census Guide to learn about and discover the stories of the people who lived during and before the 1800s. The 1800 U.S. census only provides the name of the head of household and counts of persons in the home when the census was taken. With the 1800 U.S. census information, you can, for starters, build individual and family profiles, write narratives, build family trees and find related records to research. For example, you can use the census to:
- Follow the family beyond/before1850 census
- Identify head of household
- Estimate family structure such as the number of persons by age and sex
- Differentiate between families of the same name
- Locate and identify possible children not listed in later censuses
- Locate and identify possible neighbors who might be family
- Locate and identify possible parents
- Locate and identify children not yet known
- Locate and identify families who are neighbors
- Identify slaveholders
- Identify spelling variations
- Follow the family before the 1800 U.S. Census into Colonial records
- Locate and identify a family in other census substitute records (e.g., probate inventories, tax lists)
Remember that the 1800 U.S. Census by itself is limited. Still, when combined with other censuses and records, you now have a body of information and knowledge that can give a good overview of the family.
Questions Asked in the 1800 U.S. Census
The following are the questions found on the 1800 U.S. federal census:
HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD DATA
Col. 1: Names of the Heads of Families
HOUSEHOLD DATA—FREE WHITE MALES
Col. 2: (Number of) Under ten years of age to 10 (0-9)
Col. 3: (Number of) Of ten years, and under sixteen (10-15)
Col. 4: (Number of) Of ten years, and under twenty-six, includes heads of families (10-25)
Col. 5: (Number of) Of twenty-six, and under forty-five, including heads of families (26-44)
Col. 6: (Number of) Of forty-five and upwards, including heads of families (45+)
HOUSEHOLD DATA—FREE WHITE FEMALES
Col. 7: (Number of) Under ten years of age to 10 (0-9)
Col. 8: (Number of) Of ten years, and under sixteen (10-15)
Col. 9: (Number of) Of ten years, and under twenty-six, includes heads of families (10-25)
Col. 10: (Number of) Of twenty-six, and under forty-five, including heads of families (26-44)
Col. 11: (Number of) Of forty-five and upwards, including heads of families (45+)
HOUSEHOLD DATA—ALL OTHERS
Col. 12: (Number of) All other free persons, except Indians, not taxed
Col. 13: (Number of) Slaves
OTHER
Col. 14: Total
Col. 15: (No. of the page where this was recorded)
Col. 15: Remarks
Author B. Schreiber’s Introduction to the U.S. Census
I first used the U.S. census to help find and discover the past of my step-father, John. I was interested in writing a personal narrative about his life. I wanted to answer questions like.
- Where was he born?
- Who was his family?
- What was his family story?
- What was it like during different periods of his life?
- Are there any family records (e.g., birth, marriage, school, death, etc.) that exist?
- Are there any photos, journals, letters, memorabilia about the individual or family?
- Are there living families or descendants that I can interview or help tell the story?
I did not have much information. I knew where he was buried. He was born in either the 1920s/1930s. He was born in one of four states, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, or Pennsylvania. John had been married to my mother for 
about 5 years. After their divorce, my mother lost track of him until she received a call from the police department one day asking if she knew John. John’s body had been left in a hospital’s emergency room parking lot without any personal identification. His body was taken to a local morgue, where he remained for four months until he was identified by my mother. My mother then took steps to have John’s remains buried in a nearby cemetery with a military headstone.
I shared the story with a friend of mine who was a genealogist/family historian. She asked me if I had ever thought of looking in the U.S. Census. I responded with the answer of no and questioned her about how the c
She invited me to join her at a local library, where over the next couple of hours, she began to show me the census of the 1940s, 1930s, and 1920s. Within a couple of hours, she helped me find John and his related family in and around Jersey City, New Jersey. From those humble beginnings, I used the census as a steppingstone to finding records, locating living members of John’s family, and so much more.
In short, John was born in the late 1920s in Jersey City. Growing up, he became a bookie for the mob when he was in his early 20s. When he was caught stealing from the mob, the mob put out a contract on his life.
Desperately needing help, John went to his brother, a captain for the local police department, for safety. His brother was able to work directly with the mob to negotiate for Johns’s life. John was required to pay the money back with interest and leave town, never to return. He was a soldier in WWII and was wounded in the Battle of the Bulge. When he met my mom, he was a dispatcher for a taxicab company.
From that first experience, I spent 1000s hours learning how to use the U.S. 1940-1790 Censuses as a primary resource for my narrative and background research about individuals, families, and character development.
